In looking to advance and expand the uses of EM of adults, the Scottish Government , a, has initiated consultation papers and practitioner consultation forums, established an EM expert working group to make specific recommendations, conducted a GPS tagging and tracking technology trial, and commissioned an international evidence review Graham and McIvor, Scottish EM discussions focus on two key areas: the potential introduction of GPS tags and alcohol monitoring alongside existing radio frequency EM and curfews; and better integrating uses of EM with social work supervision and third sector support.
Aims and purposes affect uses and outcomes, as EM can be used in different ways which are influenced by the professionals, practice cultures and policy frameworks involved. In its National Strategy for Community Justice the Scottish Government b proposes that EM can be used more creatively at different points in the criminal justice system and be tailored in such a way as to support specific individual goals. In this section, a number of prominent aims of using EM in criminal justice are summarised, drawing on Scottish and international examples.
Internationally, a routinely highlighted aim of using EM is to reduce imprisonment. The extent to which EM actually does influence imprisonment rates depends on how it is used, and having the quality and quantity of data needed to demonstrate reductions in isolation from other influences. EM can be used pre-trial to try to reduce the use of remand in custody; used post-conviction as a community sentence a form of diversion or alternative to a prison sentence ; or used as a form of early release from prison or parole with an EM licence condition.
Like other community sanctions and measures, EM costs less than imprisonment Graham and McIvor, In some European countries, such as Belgium and Nordic countries, EM is predominantly used like a replacement to execute prison sentences in the community on a moderately broad scale.
In Nordic countries, uses of EM are led by probation services and usually incorporate supervision with specific conditions, including having a daytime occupation employment or education and prohibitions on use of alcohol or drugs Esdorf and Sandlie, ; Kristoffersen, ; Andersen and Telle, This resonates with the findings of others Martin and colleagues, Another key aim of using EM is to monitor compliance or non-compliance with an order or licence.
When non-compliance reaches a point where the conditions of EM are deemed to have been breached, the monitored person is reported to the relevant decision-maker court, prison, parole board.
Completion rates are relatively high in Scotland, with approximately eight out of ten electronically monitored orders completed in G4S, This includes monitored people who accrue one or more minor violations that are not deemed so serious as to require their order to be breached Graham and McIvor, ; McIvor and Graham, The relatively high levels of compliance with EM in Scotland are echoed in other jurisdictions. As there has been relatively little research focusing on the perspectives and experiences of monitored people, there is limited knowledge regarding why people do or do not comply with EM orders.
Complying with and completing an EM order does not necessarily produce, nor signify desistance from crime. Research evidence linking the use of EM with reductions in reoffending is mixed Renzema, Some studies have found that the efficacy of EM in reducing reoffending after monitoring has concluded is modest or minimal or, in some cases, non-existent or negative Renzema, In contrast, other studies, especially those from continental Europe and Israel, as well as two large-scale studies from the US state of Florida, indicate a positive impact on reoffending in comparison to other types of penal sanctions, such as imprisonment or community service Padgett and colleagues, ; Bales and colleagues, ; Killias and colleagues, ; Shosham and colleagues, ; Andersen and Telle, ; Henneguelle and colleagues, There is moderately strong consensus within international evidence and experience that EM should, in many but not all cases, be used in tandem with supervision and support to maximise opportunities for rehabilitation and desistance from crime Graham and McIvor, ; Hucklesby and colleagues, Without complementary supervision and support, the impact of EM may be limited to its duration, with only modest short-term benefits when monitoring ends.
The Swedish approach to EM is intentionally characterised by a high level of support and a high level of control, with EM used in combination with other forms of supervision, support and surveillance Wennerberg, ; Bassett, EM in Sweden — as an alternative to imprisonment or in the context of early release for those who are eligible — requires monitored people to work and participate in activities relevant to their rehabilitation and reintegration.
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